Endocrinology
Evidence-based articles on Endocrinology — conditions, diagnostic approaches, treatments and what to expect from China's specialist hospitals.
Osteoporosis: Bone Density Loss, Fractures and Treatment
Osteoporosis is a systemic skeletal disease in which low bone density and deterioration of bone microarchitecture cause fragility fractures — especially of the spine, hip, and wrist. This guide covers risk factors, DEXA bone density scanning and FRAX fracture risk assessment, bisphosphonate and denosumab therapy, and anabolic treatments for severe osteoporosis.
Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome: Causes, Health Risks and Treatment
Obesity affects over 1 billion adults worldwide and is the leading preventable cause of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, fatty liver, and several cancers. This guide covers BMI and central adiposity, the metabolic syndrome cluster, how GLP-1 receptor agonists have transformed obesity medicine, and when bariatric surgery is the most effective treatment.
Thyroid Disease: Hypothyroidism, Hyperthyroidism and Thyroid Nodules
Thyroid disorders are among the most common endocrine conditions worldwide — affecting approximately 1 in 10 adults. This guide covers hypothyroidism and Hashimoto's thyroiditis, hyperthyroidism and Graves' disease, thyroid nodules and when thyroid cancer must be excluded, and the full range of treatments from levothyroxine to radioiodine and thyroid surgery.
Type 2 Diabetes: Causes, Complications and Treatment
Type 2 diabetes is the world's fastest-growing chronic disease, affecting over 500 million adults worldwide. This guide covers insulin resistance, how chronic hyperglycaemia damages blood vessels and nerves, HbA1c monitoring, lifestyle intervention, oral medications, GLP-1 receptor agonists, insulin therapy, and preventing serious complications.
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